Historical Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Historical Communications - Essay Example The rebus principle is one of the several principal types of pictographs that laid the foundation for the development of modern syllabaries. The rebus principle turns the sound into a symbol which then becomes part of more complex linguistic structures (Ong 86). At the level of rebus writing, â€Å"the symbol represents primarily a sound, and a rebus is a kind of phonogram† (Ong 86). As a result, the rebus principle shaped the basis for the creation of modern alphabetic systems by enabling individuals and societies to use pictures/symbols that signified particular sounds. A combination of those sounds would be used by those societies to describe complex notions. For example, the English word Milwaukee can be written down as a combination of the mill, walk, and key symbols (mill-walk-key) (Ong 86). This is one of the easiest examples of how the rebus principle works. Apparently, the rebus principle drove the subsequent systematization of sounds and their common representation i n written languages. With the help of the rebus principle a symbol denoting a particular concept could also be used in homonyms (WALS). The rebus principle facilitated the development and use of symbols denoting abstract notions, and gradually transformed into systemic and recognizable phonetic signs (WALS). The rebus principle was extremely common in the earliest Chinese writing, and today the Chinese and Japanese languages continue to rely on hybrid phonetic and syllabic structures. Simply stated, the symbols and pictograms used to denote complex notions gradually became a common pattern of representing those notions in writing. With time, the symbols and pictograms turned into phonetic signs to be used systematically in a particular writing language. The importance of the rebus principle for intercultural communications and understanding should not be disregarded. Better understanding across languages and language systems is one of the major benefits of the rebus system. For exam ple, persons speaking different dialects and being unable to understand each other can use the rebus principle to denote complex meanings through sounds (Ong 87). The rebus principle is of particular importance for the Asian languages, especially Chinese, since the Chinese characters are represented by exquisitely stylized pictures (Ong 87). Better understanding among different language groups can also drive the development of new symbolic systems: by using the rebus principle to understand each other; different language carriers can borrow the most convenient symbols and characters from a different language or dialect. Calling the alphabet â€Å"alphabet†: far-reaching linguistic implications The word â€Å"alphabet† signifies the starting point in the development of the basic and advanced language skills. Actually, every language is believed to start with an alphabet. In reality, however, the presence of an alphabet is the sign of language development and advancement . It is the result of numerous transformations and an important feature of contemporary language systems. Even the term â€Å"alphabet† has far-reaching implications for understanding its essence. By calling the alphabet â€Å"alphabet† (or alpha-beta), it is automatically implied that the alphabet reduces sounds to spatial equivalents and more analytic, manageable units (Ong 90). As a result, instead of having a

The Consequences Of Being A Passive Listener English Language Essay

The Consequences Of Being A Passive Listener English Language Essay Listening is an essential part of communication and is different from hearing. Listening means paying constant attention and making sense of what is being said. Hearing on the other hand is merely acknowledging that someone is speaking. Hearing is passive while listening is active. Listening is a non verbal skill. It is the act of interpreting, remembering and understanding what has been said. A listener is of two types; a good listener and a bad listener. A good listener is one who is patient and calm. He is a critical thinker who listens to each word said carefully and without judgment or interruption. He is active, persistent and shows carefully consideration when listening to what is being said. A good listener can place himself in the shoes of others, see how what is being said impacts him and see their point of view. He can tune out distractions and focus on what the speaker is saying. He also makes notes and jots down the important points. He is attentive, does not interrupt and picks out verbal and non verbal cues from the speaker. He knows that listening is the primary source of knowledge. On the other hand a bad listener is the exact opposite of a good listener. He pretends to be listening to what is being said while he lets his mind wander to irrelevant issues. He does not pick out the main idea of what is being said and often finds what the speaker says to be boring. He listens to sounds rather than the words of what is being said. He gives in freely to distractions and is often a noisemaker who distracts the attention of others in the process. He is the person who is mostly to relaxed in class and sits in informal positions. Listening is also of two types; active listening and passive listening. Active listening is the act of hearing the words and identifying the feelings associated with the words. An active listener concentrates on what is being said and is able to tune out unnecessary distractions. To be an active listener one must show empathy, acceptance and willingness to take responsibility for completeness. An active listener shows reactions to prove that he is listening and has understood what has been said, this could be; nodding, making eye contact, facial expressions, asking questions, paraphrasing, not talking too much and so forth. Furthermore he reflects on the main point and summarizes what has been said. He is also able to pick out the verbal and non verbal cues from the speaker. Passive listening according to Baker(1971)is the listening done whereby there is little self perception or personal involvement on the part of the listener. A passive listener is one who is inattentive and uninvolved l does not identify the meaningful signals and cannot interpret what is being said. He listens without reaction and doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t show signs that he understands what is being said.. He is the type who interrupts the speaker before he or she finishes speaking. This is not the best listening habit. A passive listener can be illustrated as a rock, he can be seen but he does not absorb any information. It goes in through one ear and comes out the other. He is the type that easily forgets and stores irrelevant information in his memory. He often misses out on the verbal and non verbal cues given by the speaker during a conversation. He lets his mind wander far and near during a conversation and appears to be listening but is really somewhere else. He does not contr ibute to the subject and doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t give back feedbacks. A passive reader has a short concentration span. Attention is a requirement of learning. We cannot understand, learn or remember something unless we pay attention. Passive attention is uncontrolled and dependant on external factors. There are various consequences of being a passive listener. Some of which are discussed below; Passive listeners practice hearing i.e. they hear only the sounds coming out of the speakers mouth. They do do not cultivate good listening skills i.e. they are not effective listeners. They do not make a habit out of listening attentively and understanding what is being said. They pretend to listen while letting their minds wander supreme, giving in to distractions and so on. Passive listeners have a short concentration span; this means that they only concentrate for short periods of time. Due to distractions which they may give out or receive, they allow their mind to wander to irrelevant issues which do not concern what they are listening to. When they find a topic boring or difficult their state of mind changes towards that topic .i.e. they are instantly put off by it and are not encouraged to learn more, they pretend to listen and understand and do not concentrate on what is being said. Also, passive listeners miss out the key points and the main idea of what is being said. They only surface listen which is pretending to listen. Even though they are physically present there mind is not. They do not watch out for the importance of the lesson. Again due to distractions or voluminous jottings they miss out the verbal and non verbal cues the speaker gives out. In addition to, passive listeners do not focus completely on what the speaker is saying. They often misinterpret his points which could lead to disagreements, talking out of turn and debates between the passive listener and the speaker. Furthermore, passive listeners normally possess bad sitting postures. One should be comfortable while listening but not to relaxed. They are often to relaxed while listening which may give rise to sleep and missing the aim of the lesson. Also passive listeners do not give out positive gestures to show that they are listening and comprehending what is being said. Like nodding of the had in agreement, paraphrasing what is being said, positive or negative facial expressions, asking relevant questions within and outside the topic, clapping, shaking of the head in disagreement and so on. In addition to, passive listeners are the type that makes irrelevant copious notes which distracts them from the importance of the lesson while pretending to be listening. They write down almost everything the speaker says thinking that that is what is important. They do not jot down and summarize the key points of the topic . They do not possess an undivided attention thereby giving in to distraction which are; noise making, using of phones or other gadgets at the wrong time, constantly looking at ones watch, listening to music while listening, etc. Passive listeners do not reflect and put into use what is being said, bring up meaningless points and are mostly the people who come in late and leave early, sit at the back and never in the front rows unless they are told to do so. They are not critical thinkers, they do not think deep about what they are listening to. Passive listeners do not keep an open mind when they are listening; they are not matured listeners and are the type that are easily put off by irrelevant things. They look for the faults in the speaker or in what he is saying rather than grasping the importance of his topic. There are various guidelines or rules one must follow to be a good listener. This includes; stopping anything one is doing when a discussion is going on, ensuring that there are no barriers or distractions around, making observations not copious notes one will not understand in the future but summarizing the key points i.e. year in which events occurred, peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s names, names of cities or countries, occupation of people etc. Sitting at ease but not being too relaxed which may give way to sleep, not allowing oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mind wander away, putting into practice the habit of paying attention to someone and not being discouraged by earlier failures, keeping an eye out for the main points of the lecture, not sitting with people who could be a distraction and not being a distraction our self, getting the information first and not looking out for irrelevant flaws with the speaker. In conclusion, we have learnt what listening is, the difference between listening and hearing, the differences between a good and bad listener, types of listening, guidelines to being a good listener, what one should do when one is speaking, what distractions are, the differences between an active and a passive listener and the consequences of being a passive listener. Therefore one must strive to be an effective and active listener so as to be a better learner.

Comparing Margaret Cavendish’s The Description of a New World, Called t

Comparing Margaret Cavendish’s The Description of a New World, Called the Blazing World and Sir Thomas More’s Utopia The so-called Utopia – the quasi-perfect society – flourishes in Margaret Cavendish’s â€Å"The Description of a New World, Called a Blazing World† and Sir Thomas More’s Utopia. While the former is a dreamlike account of fantasy rule and the latter a pseudo-realistic travelogue, both works paint a picture of worlds that are not so perfect after all. These imperfections glitter like false gemstones in the paths of these Utopians’ religious beliefs, political systems, and philosophical viewpoints. Religion and spirituality reach into the depths of the human psyche and strongly influence a nation’s way of life. In Margaret Cavendish’s â€Å"Blazing World†, the Emperor and the inhabitants of the Blazing World worship Margaret, who renamed herself Margaret the First. Highly revered as a deity by the people, Margaret is surprised to discover that females do not have a high place in the religious fabric of the Blazing World. Women are barred from religious assemblies, because it is â€Å"promiscuous† for men and women to be together during religious worship, so women must remain at home to worship in the privacy of their rooms (Cavendish 1767). Priests and governors are made eunuchs to safeguard them from women and children who, according to Margaret’s advisors, make too much disturbances in the church and in the state. In Sir Thomas More’s Utopia, women priests are highly regarded. However, churches here are also segregat ed – the men sit on one side and while the women sit on the other. Aside from thinking that the peoples of the Blazing World are segregated as Jews, Turks, or Christians because women are... ...r recognition should not exist, yet in More’s Utopia, these beliefs exist at the very heart of the citizen’s being. In both of the purported "Utopian" worlds, the imperfect religious traditions, rigid governing systems, and askew philosophical beliefs mar what are otherwise model worlds for all other nations to imitate. Margaret Cavendish and Sir Thomas More, in their differing styles, are able to convey that no world is perfect, but there is room for change, for everyone can fabricate their own imaginary worlds and travelogues. Works Cited Cavendish, Margaret. The Description of a New World, Called the Blazing World. 1666, 1668. Norton Anthology of English Literature. 7th ed. 2 vols. New York: Norton, 2000, 1: 1765-1771. More, Sir Thomas. Utopia. 1516. . Norton Anthology of English Literature. 7th ed. 2 vols. New York: Norton, 2000, 1: 1765-1771.

Philosophy And Modernity Essay

The conflict between Philosophy and Modernity is a never ending topic. Each of the terms is individually supported by the corresponding generations. But those who support modernity, at least at some point of life will surely support philosophy. That is the power of philosophy. Let us take a mishap as example that shows us how these two issues conflict with each other. The terrorist attacks of September 11 still haunt the minds of Americans unnerved by the enormity of the crime. We need to know what could have inspired someone to do such a thing. It is bad enough to experience such a monstrous event; to feel it is inexplicable, an act with no conceivable motive, only adds to the sense of unreality. What is the source of this hostility? What ideas, values, and attitudes give rise to it? Lewis’s observation contains the seeds of the two leading schools of thought about the answer to this question. Both schools place Islamist hatred of the USA in a larger cultural and historical context. Both are plausible, and in many respects they are compatible. But they differ in what they see as the essential terms of the ongoing conflict, and in their implications for the future. One school holds that the war on terror reflects an underlying conflict between Islam and the West as civilisations. Each is united, as a civilisation, by the loyalty of its people to a narrative of their past, a common religion, and shared ideas, values, and ways of life. The current tensions between Islam and the West are only the latest of the conflicts that have occurred over the centuries. The USA is a particular object of hostility now because it is the most powerful Western country. Those who reject modernity are to be found in every nation and civilization. The second school holds that terrorists’ hostility is directed at ‘the principles and values’ of the West. On this view, what they hate is not the West as a society or a civilisation per se, but rather the culture of modernity. Modernity was born in the West, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but it is not inherently tied to the history or customs of any one society. It is a constellation of universal values – the secular culture of reason, science, individualism, progress, democracy, and capitalism – that have spread worldwide in different forms and to varying degrees. By the same token, those who reject modernity, who fear and wish to destroy it, are to be found in every nation and civilisation. And invariably they hate the USA as the fullest, most persuasive, and thus most dangerous embodiment of that culture. There are as many battles within civilisations as between them. Muslims saw military success as a mark of Allah’s favour. As Seyyed Hossein Nasr, a prominent Iranian philosopher and historian, observes, ‘During the first twelve centuries of its historic existence, Islam lived with the full awareness of the truth and realisation of God’s promise to Muslims that they would be victorious if they followed His religion. Such verses as â€Å"There is no victor but God†, which adorns the walls of the Alhambra, also adorned the soul and mind of Muslims’. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, however, the tide turned. The scientific and industrial revolutions vastly increased the wealth and the military power of the West. After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the Middle East was taken over by European nations and broken up into colonies and protectorates. Today, despite decolonisation, the countries of this region remain poor and backward by comparison not only with the West but also with the booming economies of East Asia. Oil revenue has showered wealth on the region, but economic growth has been held back by layers of regulations, wasteful government enterprises and investments, not to mention corruption. Because of their strategic location, Middle Eastern countries were pawns of the Cold War but were rarely true partners or friends of either power. Now, Muslims feel they are at the mercy of a global economy driven by Western capitalism. They feel invaded by Western popular culture, which they regard as morally decadent. Israel is the salt in all these wounds – a nation of people who came from the West, tore a patch of land from Islam, turned it into a vibrant, wealthy economy, and acquired the military prowess to defeat its Arab neighbours. The result of all this, is ‘a feeling of humiliation – a growing awareness, among the heirs of an old, proud, and long-dominant civilisation, of having been overtaken, overborne, and overwhelmed by those whom they regarded as their inferiors’. Having tried to take on Western ways, with dismal results, they are increasingly drawn to the idea that the solution is a return to the pure Islamic faith that reigned in the days of their former greatness. The clash-of-civilisations school doubtless represents part of the truth of the matter. But it is not the whole truth, and not the fundamental truth. Its chief shortcoming is that it exaggerates the extent of agreement in outlook, values, ideas, and loyalties among people who share the common history and culture that define a civilisation. In fact, there are as many battles over these issues within civilisations as between them – especially in the West. The hijackers’ target was a temple of modernity. At the level of fundamental philosophical principles, however, the Enlightenment period was much more important as a turning point in the West, and in a way created a new civilisation. Anti-modernism Modernity was born in the West in a radical transformation of its past. The world of the Middle Ages, built around the world-view of Christian Scholasticism, was a society of religious philosophy, feudal law, and an agricultural economy. Out of this soil, the Renaissance and Enlightenment produced a substantially new society of science, individualism, and industrial capitalism. When we examine the wider context of Islamic terrorism, it is clear that a hatred of modernity is its driving force. The cultural foundation of this new society, if we state it as a set of explicit theses, was the view that reason, not revelation, is the instrument of knowledge and arbiter of truth; that science, not religion, gives us the truth about nature; that the pursuit of happiness in this life, not suffering in preparation for the next, is the cardinal value; that reason can and should be used to increase human wellbeing through economic and technological progress; that the individual person is an end in himself with the capacity to direct his own life, not a slave or a child to be ruled by others; that individuals have equal rights to freedom of thought, speech, and action; that religious belief should be a private affair, tolerance a social virtue, and church and state kept separate; and that we should replace command economies with markets, warfare with trade, and rule by king or commissar with democracy. It is therefore misleading to call our civilisation Christian, even though that remains the largest religion in terms of adherents. The West may still be a culture of Christians, by and large, but it is not a Christian culture anymore. It is a secular culture. And that is what the Islamists hate most about us. The al-Qaeda hijackers did not target the Vatican, the capital of Western Christianity whose leaders launched the Crusades. They did not attack the British Foreign Office, which directed colonial policy in the Middle East after World War I. They attacked the World Trade Centre, the proud symbol of engineering audacity and global commerce, where businesses from scores of countries (including many Muslim countries) worked in freedom and peace, creating wealth and investing in material progress. Their target, in short, was a temple of modernity. The culture of modernity is not a Western good but a human good Modernity meant people changing their relationship with both the world and themselves. For the first time, through science, they realised that many things, such as certain weather patterns or illnesses, were not a matter of fate. The social order no longer seemed impossible to change either. Revolutions could sweep away despots and people could improve their living standards. The threat posed by the Islamist terrorists derives not from their Islamic background but from the ideas, values, and motivations they share with anti-modernists everywhere-including in the West. In that regard, they have not merely assaulted our civilisation. They have attacked civilisation as such. Civilisation is the condition a society attains when it emerges from prehistoric barbarism and begins to apply intelligence systematically to the problems of human life, by creating technologies of production like farming, technologies of cognition like writing, and technologies of social order like cities and law. The culture of modernity is one of these permanent contributions – the most important. Though Western in origin, it is not a Western good but a human good. It has vastly expanded our knowledge of the world; brought a vast increase in wealth, comfort, safety, and health; and created social institutions in which humans can flourish. Anti-modernism is not simply loyalty to pre-modern stages of civilisation on the part of people who have not yet discovered reason and individualism. It is a postmodern reaction by people who have seen modernity and turned against it, who hate and wish to destroy it. This is a profoundly anti-human outlook, and there can be no compromise with it. As we take aim at the terrorists who have attacked us, we must also take intellectual aim at the ideas that inspire them.

Postpartum depression: The mother, child and partner involvement Essay

Traditionally, postpartum psychiatric disorders have been divided into three categories depending on increasing degrees of severity: postpartum blues, postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. Postpartum Depression (PPD) is thought to affect between 4 and 28% of all mothers. Despite its prevalence, it is not well understood.   It is the duration, severity and complexity of the symptoms that distinguishes PPD from the baby blues and postpartum psychosis (Romm, 2002). PPD can affect any woman, no matter what her age, economic status, or cultural background. Symptoms include madness, irritability, apathy, and intense anxiety, crying spells, worthlessness, and inability to make decisions or to concentrate. It can begin anytime during the first few days, weeks, or months after delivery. The specific cause is unknown but fluctuating hormone levels, exhaustion and stress may trigger. PPD, if left untreated could lead to postpartum psychosis characterized by delusions and hallucinations; they may become suicidal or have thoughts of hurting their baby. There are a lot of possible causes of PPD which include: doubt about the pregnancy, lack of support system, breast-feeding problems, sharp drop in estrogen and progesterone levels after childbirth, unresolved issues and any other stressful events. Signs and symptoms that may indicate that postpartum blues are actually PPD include: worsening insomnia, changes in appetite (poor intake), poor interaction with the neonate; views the neonate as a burden or problem, suicidal thoughts or thoughts of harming the neonate, feelings of isolation from social contacts and support systems, inability to care for self or neonate due to lack of energy or desire (Springhouse, 2007). A range of risk factors have been identified with the development of PPD, including a history of depression, difficult infant temperament, marital or partner relationship problems, child care stress, low self-esteem and poor social support. Postpartum depression is very treatable with counseling and/or antidepressant medications that are safe for nursing mothers (Riley, 2006). The child of a PPD mother Researchers have extended examination of PPD to include samples from various cultures and countries around the world. PPD disrupts maternal-infant interactions and children’s cognitive and emotional development. Withdrawn, disengaged, and intrusive maternal behavior patterns may result in fussy, aggressive, less affectionate and less responsive infants. Reduced vocalization and slower neurological growth and motor skills development have been documented among infants of depressed mothers. In response to growing incidence of PPD’s negative effect on infant development, investigators have begun to focus evaluating interventions to promote improved mother-infant relationships. Nurse investigators are also involved in testing better tools for early detection of PPD. The Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS) is a promising, 35-item self-report instrument to identify women who are at risk for PPD. Given the importance of PPD as a clinical problem, mental health evaluation of all postpartum women should be standard care (Fitzpatrick & Wallace, 2006). This depression often interferes with a woman’s ability to function. One of the major challenges in dealing with PPD has been early recognition. Undiagnosed PPD can result in tragedy, sometimes in a form of maternal suicide or infanticide that makes headlines. Early intervention is essential. In screening, it is important to recognize that women who have experienced a high-risk pregnancy, previous infertility, previous post-partum depression, and stressful labor and birth are at risks of PPD. A non-supportive partner or stress related to family, marriage, occupation, housing, or other events during pregnancy can also contribute to the risk of PPD. Also, women with past history of depression not related to pregnancy are at risk. Screening for PPD begins with prenatally with identification of potential risks. it is important that the woman at risk and/or diagnosed with PPD receive appropriate counseling, treatment, and support (Phillips, 2003). One clinical trial designed to test the efficacy of an interactive coaching approach delivered by trained home visiting nurse produced promising findings. The intervention had a positive effect on maternal-infant responsiveness among mothers. Subsequent research is needed with diverse samples to test additional interventions to reduce negative effects of maternal depression on child development. Inclusion of partners to examine family processes related to maternal depression was also recommended (Fitzpatrick & Wallace, 2006). The treatment   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Treatment is available for people suffering from depression, the most effective for moderate-to-severe cases generally being combination of biological and non-biological therapies. This usually means making use of both medication and psychotherapy. One key factor in the success if antidepressant medication is the willingness of patients to take it as prescribed. Compliance with prescribed medications is also important. Psychotherapy is educational in nature and involves helping patients develop an understanding of various problems, as well as new beliefs and behaviors, which can ultimately lead to more successful adjustments. Psychotherapy may be supportive in nature or crisis-oriented (Ainsworth, 2000). The high rate of depression and anxiety disorders in women of childbearing age should alert the primary care physician to consider PPD in the routine care of young and middle-aged women (Robinson & Yates, 1999). The partner of a PPD mother   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Research suggests that women’s relationships with their male partners are crucial to understanding PPD. According to studies, male partners are the primary sources of support in mother’s lives, and one of the main causes of PPD is seen as a poor relationship in which a woman’s partner fails to be sympathetic, understanding, or supportive in practical or emotional terms (Mauthner, 2002). The partner’s positive response to this problem could result to faster recovery of the mother and the safety of the child as well. References Ainsworth, P. (2000). Understanding Depression: Univ. Press of Mississippi. Fitzpatrick, J. J., & Wallace, M. (2006). Encyclopedia of Nursing Research: Springer Publishing Company. Mauthner, N. S. (2002). The Darkest Days of My Life: Stories of Postpartum Depression: Harvard University Press. Phillips, C. R. (2003). Family-Centered Maternity Care: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Riley, L. (2006). Pregnancy: The Ultimate Week-By-Week Pregnancy Guide: Meredith Books. Robinson, R. G., & Yates, W. R. (1999). Psychiatric Treatment of the Medically Ill: Informa Health Care. Romm, A. J. (2002). Natural Health After Birth: The Complete Guide to Postpartum Wellness: Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. Springhouse. (2007). Maternal-Neonatal Nursing Made Incredibly Easy! : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.